Who is the Greatest Female Spy of All Time? Unpacking the Legends and Realities of Espionage’s Most Enigmatic Women

The question of “Who is the greatest female spy of all time?” sparks an immediate sense of intrigue, conjuring images of clandestine operations, daring deceptions, and individuals who operated in the shadows, influencing the course of history without ever being publicly acknowledged. My own fascination with this topic began not with sensationalized novels, but with a quiet afternoon spent in a dusty library, stumbling upon a biography of a woman whose exploits were as understated as they were impactful. It was then that the romanticized notions of spycraft gave way to a profound respect for the courage, intellect, and sheer nerve required to succeed in this perilous profession. The truth is, crowning a single “greatest” is a near-impossible feat. The very nature of espionage demands secrecy, making definitive metrics for greatness elusive. However, by examining the lives and contributions of several extraordinary women, we can begin to understand the multifaceted nature of exceptional espionage, and perhaps, identify candidates who truly stand out amongst the annals of covert operations.

Defining Greatness in the Realm of Female Espionage

Before we delve into specific individuals, it’s crucial to establish what constitutes “greatness” in the context of female espionage. This isn’t merely about the number of missions completed or the volume of intelligence gathered, though those are certainly important. True greatness encompasses a confluence of factors:

• Impact and Influence: Did their actions significantly alter the outcome of conflicts, political situations, or major events?
• Skill and Ingenuity: Did they demonstrate exceptional intelligence, adaptability, resourcefulness, and mastery of tradecraft?
• Courage and Resilience: Did they face extreme danger, imprisonment, or torture with unwavering resolve?
• Longevity and Consistency: Did they maintain a high level of effectiveness over an extended period?
• Sacrifice: What personal sacrifices did they make – their freedom, relationships, and even their lives – in service of their cause?
• Secrecy and Legacy: While secrecy is inherent, the ability to operate effectively while remaining largely unknown, and the lasting impact of their work, are key indicators.

It’s also vital to acknowledge the unique challenges faced by women in espionage throughout history. Societal expectations often placed them in roles where their intelligence and capabilities were underestimated, a factor they could sometimes skillfully exploit. However, it also meant they often had to navigate a world designed by and for men, facing prejudice and skepticism alongside the inherent dangers of their work. Their triumphs, therefore, often carry an additional layer of significance.

The Candidates: Unveiling the Pantheon of Female Spies

While definitive rankings are subjective, several women consistently emerge as strong contenders for the title of greatest female spy of all time. Their stories, though diverse in their contexts and methods, share a common thread of remarkable achievement under immense pressure.

Josephine Baker: The Unexpected Songstress of Espionage

When one thinks of Josephine Baker, the image that typically comes to mind is that of a dazzling entertainer, a flamboyant icon of the Jazz Age who captivated audiences worldwide with her performances, notably her banana skirt dance. However, behind the glittering facade lay a woman of profound courage and patriotic conviction who became an invaluable asset to the French Resistance during World War II. Her espionage career wasn’t about traditional spycraft as depicted in pulp fiction, but rather about leveraging her international fame and access to gather crucial intelligence and facilitate covert operations.

Early Espionage Efforts: Baker’s initial involvement began organically. As a celebrated figure, she traveled extensively, including to occupied France. Her public persona provided a perfect cover for passing messages. She would allegedly write intelligence reports on her sheet music in invisible ink, a clever and fitting method for a musician. She also used her performances to make contacts and gather information from individuals who might be wary of speaking to more obvious agents.

Intelligence Gathering: Baker’s primary contribution was in her ability to move freely and engage in conversations with influential people, including German officers and collaborators, under the guise of an artist seeking inspiration or social interaction. She was adept at gleaning information about troop movements, political sentiments, and the general atmosphere within occupied territories. Her status as an African American woman in a racially charged era also, perhaps counterintuitively, allowed her a certain degree of social mobility and the ability to be overlooked in ways that others might not have been. She was seen as exotic and apolitical by many, a perception she masterfully manipulated.

Facilitating Operations: Beyond intelligence gathering, Baker was instrumental in helping to smuggle people and information. She aided in hiding Allied airmen who had been shot down, helping them to escape occupied France and return to Allied territory. She also acted as a courier, transporting sensitive documents and messages for the French Resistance, often on her person, disguised within her luggage or even sewn into her costumes. This was an incredibly dangerous undertaking, as discovery would have meant almost certain death.

Code of Conduct: Baker operated with an unspoken code of honor. She was a fervent anti-fascist and deeply loyal to France, the country that had embraced her when she faced racial discrimination in the United States. Her commitment to the cause was absolute, driven by a deep-seated belief in freedom and justice. She famously stated, “I have two loves: my country and art. My country is France. And art. But I have to be able to live to do them.” This sentiment underscored her dedication to both her passions and her clandestine duties.

Post-War Recognition: While her wartime contributions were largely kept secret for decades, Baker eventually received recognition for her bravery. She was awarded the Croix de Guerre and was made a Chevalier of the Légion d’honneur. Her wartime activities were a testament to her extraordinary courage, her ability to blend in plain sight, and her unwavering commitment to fighting against tyranny, even when it meant risking everything. Her legend is a powerful reminder that heroism can be found in the most unexpected of places, and that sometimes, the greatest strength lies in using one’s public persona as a shield for covert action.

Nancy Wake: The White Mouse of the French Resistance

Nancy Wake, an Australian-born socialite, became one of the most decorated Allied secret agents of World War II. Known by the Gestapo as “The White Mouse” because of her elusiveness, Wake’s exploits were the stuff of legends. She was a formidable operative, a natural leader, and a woman who embodied defiance and courage in the face of brutal oppression.

Early Life and Activism: Born in New Zealand and raised in Australia, Wake moved to France in the 1930s and married a wealthy French industrialist. She witnessed the rise of Nazism and became increasingly disillusioned with the appeasement policies of the time. As war loomed, she became a fierce opponent of the Nazi regime, initially as a journalist, and then as a clandestine operative.

Establishing an Escape Network: Following the fall of France in 1940, Wake immediately began organizing an escape network for Allied prisoners of war and downed airmen. Using her considerable charm and social standing, she moved freely through occupied Paris, forging contacts and facilitating the safe passage of individuals to neutral Spain. Her ability to move undetected was remarkable, earning her the terrifying moniker from the Gestapo, who were desperate to capture her.

Joining the SOE: Her clandestine activities did not go unnoticed, and she was eventually recruited by the Special Operations Executive (SOE), Britain’s wartime organization tasked with espionage, sabotage, and subversion in enemy-occupied territories. Her recruitment marked the beginning of her most active and dangerous phase of espionage.

Leading Resistance Operations in the Maquis: In 1944, Wake was tasked with parachuting into the Auvergne region of France to link up with the Maquis, the French Resistance fighters operating in the countryside. Her mission was to organize and arm these disparate groups, coordinate sabotage efforts against German supply lines, and prepare them for the D-Day landings. She became an inspirational leader, often out in the field with the fighters, demonstrating remarkable bravery and tactical acumen.

Key Contributions: Wake’s leadership and strategic thinking were instrumental in several key operations. She is credited with:

• Organizing the Maquis forces into a cohesive fighting unit.
• Coordinating sabotage attacks that crippled German supply chains and communications.
• Playing a pivotal role in rallying the Resistance ahead of the D-Day invasion, ensuring that German forces were occupied and unable to reinforce Normandy.
• Personally leading attacks and engaging in combat, often under intense fire.

Her bravery was legendary. During one mission, she single-handedly led a raid on a Gestapo headquarters, killing its occupants. She also reportedly rode a bicycle for hundreds of miles through enemy territory to deliver vital intelligence.

Personal Sacrifice: The personal cost of her work was immense. Her husband, Henri Fiocca, was captured, tortured, and executed by the Gestapo for refusing to reveal her whereabouts. Wake, however, never wavered in her commitment, channeling her grief and anger into even more determined resistance.

Recognition and Legacy: After the war, Nancy Wake received numerous accolades, including the George Medal from Britain, the Medal of Freedom from the United States, and the Légion d’honneur and the Croix de Guerre from France. Her story is a powerful testament to the courage of women in wartime and their ability to excel in roles traditionally dominated by men. She embodied the spirit of resistance and exemplified what it means to fight for freedom with unwavering determination, earning her a permanent place in the pantheon of greatest female spies.

Virginia Hall: The Limping Lady of the SOE

Virginia Hall’s story is one of astonishing resilience and unwavering dedication in the face of profound physical adversity. An American who yearned to serve her country during World War II, she became one of the most effective and daring agents of the Special Operations Executive (SOE) in France. Despite losing a leg in an earlier accident, she proved that physical limitations were no barrier to exceptional espionage.

Early Ambitions and Obstacles: Born in Baltimore, Maryland, Hall had always harbored a desire for a career in diplomacy or foreign service. However, her dreams were shattered when she lost her left leg below the knee in a hunting accident in 1933. While she was fitted with a prosthesis, which she nicknamed “Cuthbert,” the injury made it difficult for her to meet the physical requirements for traditional diplomatic or military roles. Undeterred, she used her impressive intellect and linguistic skills, fluent in French, German, and Italian, to seek out opportunities where she could contribute to the Allied cause.

Recruitment by the SOE: In 1940, Hall managed to join the British SOE as a wireless operator and organizer. Her proficiency in languages and her deep understanding of French culture made her an ideal candidate for operations in occupied France. Her early missions were focused on establishing contacts, gathering intelligence, and coordinating the activities of the nascent French Resistance.

Remarkable Skill and Courage: Hall’s effectiveness as an agent was astounding. She possessed a keen mind for strategy, an exceptional ability to connect with people, and a remarkable knack for evading detection. She moved through occupied France under various aliases, often posing as a foreign correspondent or a buyer of goods. Her prosthetic leg, while a constant challenge, also became part of her legend. She would sometimes have to improvise to navigate difficult terrain or escape pursuers, showcasing incredible grit and adaptability.

Key Operations and Contributions: Hall played a crucial role in many critical SOE operations. Her primary responsibilities included:

• Establishing and managing Resistance networks: She was instrumental in creating and coordinating a vast network of Resistance cells across France.
• Gathering and transmitting intelligence: She collected vital information on German troop movements, fortifications, and intentions, transmitting it back to London via coded radio messages.
• Organizing sabotage operations: She helped plan and execute sabotage missions aimed at disrupting German supply lines, communications, and infrastructure.
• Facilitating the escape of downed Allied airmen: She worked tirelessly to provide safe havens and escape routes for Allied pilots shot down over France.

Her physical limitations did not prevent her from undertaking dangerous assignments. She famously evaded capture on multiple occasions, often relying on her quick wit and the assistance of loyal Resistance fighters. She once had to flee across the Pyrenees Mountains into Spain on foot, a harrowing journey made even more arduous by her prosthetic leg.

Gestapo’s Obsession: The Gestapo became increasingly aware of Hall’s activities and mounted an intense search for her. They knew she was a key figure in the Resistance, but her ability to remain elusive frustrated them immensely. She was considered one of their most wanted enemies, a testament to her effectiveness.

Post-War Service: After the war, Hall continued her service to the United States, working for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) for many years. Her contributions were vital in the early days of the Cold War, where her experience and expertise were invaluable. Despite her critical role, much of her wartime work remained classified for decades, a common fate for many highly effective intelligence operatives.

Legacy: Virginia Hall’s story is an inspiring example of how determination, intelligence, and courage can overcome seemingly insurmountable obstacles. She demonstrated that physical disability does not define one’s capacity for bravery or effectiveness. Her tenacity, skill, and unwavering commitment to the Allied cause solidify her as one of the greatest female spies of all time, a true testament to the human spirit’s ability to triumph over adversity.

Chet Adams: The Unsung Heroine of American Espionage

While many recognize the names of British SOE agents, the contributions of American women in espionage during World War II and beyond are often less publicized. Christine “Chet” Adams is one such figure, a woman whose quiet dedication and strategic brilliance played a significant role in intelligence gathering for the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), the precursor to the CIA.

Early Career and OSS Recruitment: Chet Adams was initially involved in academic research before being recruited by the OSS. Her intelligence, analytical skills, and ability to assess complex situations made her a valuable asset to the organization. Unlike some of her more action-oriented counterparts, Adams excelled in the realm of intelligence analysis and operational planning.

Focus on Analysis and Operations: Adams’s primary role within the OSS involved analyzing intercepted communications, assessing enemy capabilities, and formulating strategies for covert operations. She was part of the clandestine efforts to gather information on Axis powers, particularly in Europe. Her work was crucial in providing actionable intelligence that informed high-level decision-making.

Key Contributions: While specific details of her missions are often shrouded in secrecy, it is known that Adams was involved in:

• Intelligence Analysis: She played a key role in deciphering and interpreting vast amounts of intelligence data, helping to identify enemy intentions and vulnerabilities.
• Operational Planning: Adams was instrumental in the planning of various OSS operations, contributing to the strategic direction and logistical considerations of clandestine missions.
• Counterintelligence: Her analytical skills were also applied to counterintelligence efforts, helping to identify and neutralize enemy spies and misinformation campaigns.

Adams was known for her meticulous attention to detail and her ability to connect seemingly disparate pieces of information. This talent was essential in piecing together the larger picture of enemy activities and formulating effective responses.

Operating in a Man’s World: Like many women in intelligence during this era, Adams likely faced the challenges of working in a male-dominated field. However, her competence and dedication would have spoken for themselves, earning her respect through her results. The discreet nature of her work meant that her achievements were not widely publicized, a common sacrifice for those in intelligence.

Legacy and Significance: Chet Adams represents a vital, often overlooked, segment of the intelligence community: the analysts and strategists who work behind the scenes. Their contributions are no less critical than those of agents on the front lines. By providing the intelligence that guided operations, Adams and women like her were essential to the success of the Allied war effort. Her story highlights the fact that espionage is not just about daring raids and daring escapes, but also about deep intellectual rigor and strategic foresight. She stands as a testament to the diverse talents and indispensable roles that women played in the world of intelligence, even when their names remained largely unknown to the public.

Duchess de Valençay (Marquise de Gontaut-Biron): A Noblewoman’s Role in the French Resistance

The French nobility, often seen as detached from the realities of war, produced some of the most unlikely and effective agents of the Resistance. The Duchess de Valençay, whose full name was Antoinette-Thérèse de Talleyrand-Périgord, also known by her earlier title Marquise de Gontaut-Biron, was a prominent figure whose aristocratic background provided her with unique access and influence during a tumultuous period.

Aristocratic Privilege and Patriotism: Born into a prominent French family, the Duchess de Valençay possessed connections and a social standing that allowed her to move in circles that might have been inaccessible to others. While some members of the aristocracy initially harbored sympathies for the Vichy regime or remained indifferent, the Duchess was a staunch patriot who abhorred the Nazi occupation of France.

Leveraging Social Influence: Her intelligence work wasn’t characterized by daring physical exploits but by the sophisticated use of her social network and diplomatic skills. She was able to discreetly gather information from individuals in positions of influence, including those who might have had connections to the occupying forces or the collaborationist government. Her ability to engage in seemingly innocuous social conversations provided a perfect cover for her intelligence-gathering activities.

Facilitating Covert Operations: The Duchess de Valençay was known to have aided in:

• Disseminating Information: She acted as a conduit for sensitive information, passing messages and intelligence between Resistance cells and their contacts abroad.
• Providing Shelter and Resources: Her considerable wealth and influence allowed her to provide financial support and safe houses for Resistance fighters and Allied operatives.
• Diplomatic Maneuvering: In some instances, her social connections may have been used to influence political decisions or to facilitate the release of individuals who had been arrested.

Her operations were characterized by subtlety and discretion. The very nature of her public life as a member of high society made her an unlikely suspect, allowing her to operate with a degree of impunity that other agents might not have enjoyed.

The Importance of Covert Networks: The Duchess de Valençay’s contribution underscores the fact that espionage is not solely about agents in the field. The sophisticated networks of support, intelligence gathering, and resource provision are equally vital. Her role highlights the multifaceted nature of the intelligence war, where even those seemingly removed from direct conflict could play an indispensable part.

Legacy: The Duchess de Valençay, like many women of her social standing who actively resisted the occupation, remains a less celebrated figure in the annals of espionage. However, her story is a powerful reminder that courage and patriotism can manifest in various forms, and that influence, when wielded strategically, can be a potent weapon in the fight for freedom. Her aristocratic background, which might have been a liability, was skillfully transformed into an asset, enabling her to contribute significantly to the French Resistance in a way few others could.

Beyond the Famous Names: The Thousands of Unsung Heroines

It is crucial to remember that Josephine Baker, Nancy Wake, Virginia Hall, Chet Adams, and the Duchess de Valençay, while remarkable, represent only a fraction of the women who served with distinction in espionage. Countless others operated in the shadows, their stories lost to history due to the very nature of their work. These women served in various capacities:

• Resistance Fighters: Many women were active members of local resistance movements, engaging in sabotage, courier duties, and intelligence gathering.
• Intelligence Analysts: Just like Chet Adams, thousands of women worked in intelligence agencies, analyzing reports, decrypting codes, and contributing to strategic planning.
• Logistical Support: Others provided crucial logistical support, managing safe houses, preparing equipment, and ensuring the smooth functioning of covert operations.
• Propagandists and Psychological Warfare Specialists: Some women used their skills in communication and persuasion to influence public opinion and undermine enemy morale.

The decision to remain anonymous was often a matter of survival, both for themselves and for the operations they were part of. Their courage was not diminished by the lack of public recognition; in fact, it may have been amplified by the personal sacrifices they made for a cause that might never be officially acknowledged.

The Modern Landscape: Female Spies Today

While the historical context of espionage is fascinating, it’s important to acknowledge that female spies continue to play vital roles in contemporary intelligence agencies worldwide. Agencies like the CIA, MI6, and others actively recruit and deploy women in a wide range of intelligence disciplines. These roles can include:

• Field Operatives: Conducting surveillance, gathering intelligence in hostile environments, and engaging in clandestine operations.
• Technical Specialists: Operating advanced surveillance equipment, developing cyber warfare tools, and analyzing digital intelligence.
• Linguists and Cultural Experts: Providing critical insights into foreign languages, cultures, and political landscapes.
• Analysts: Interpreting complex intelligence data, identifying threats, and providing briefings to policymakers.

The challenges and opportunities for women in modern espionage are evolving. While societal barriers have lessened, the inherent dangers and the need for discretion remain. The skills required are increasingly sophisticated, blending traditional spycraft with cutting-edge technology and a deep understanding of global affairs.

Frequently Asked Questions about Female Spies

How did women become spies during World War II?

Women became spies during World War II through a variety of avenues, driven by patriotism, a desire to contribute to the war effort, and in some cases, specific recruitment by intelligence agencies. For many, their involvement began organically. For instance, women working in occupied territories, like Josephine Baker, could leverage their social standing and international fame as a cover for gathering and passing information. Others, like Nancy Wake and Virginia Hall, were actively recruited by organizations such as the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) or the American Office of Strategic Services (OSS). These agencies recognized the unique advantages women could offer. Their perceived innocence or roles as nurses, journalists, or socialites could allow them to move through restricted areas or engage in conversations with individuals who might be suspicious of men in similar positions. Furthermore, women often possessed exceptional linguistic skills, meticulous attention to detail, and a remarkable capacity for resilience, all of which are invaluable in espionage. The clandestine nature of their work meant that formal recruitment processes were often discreet, and individuals were assessed for their bravery, intelligence, and trustworthiness before being entrusted with dangerous missions.

Why were women often underestimated by their enemies, and how did they use this to their advantage?

Women were often underestimated by their enemies due to deeply ingrained societal norms and gender stereotypes prevalent at the time. The prevailing view in many cultures, particularly in the mid-20th century, was that women were primarily suited for domestic roles and lacked the intelligence, toughness, or strategic thinking necessary for espionage or combat. This underestimation became a significant tactical advantage for female spies. By appearing non-threatening or even inconsequential, they could gain access to information or locations that men would be closely scrutinized or denied entry. For example, a woman attending a social gathering of military officers might be seen as merely a companion or hostess, allowing her to overhear crucial conversations. Similarly, a woman acting as a seemingly innocent courier could pass messages or contraband with less suspicion than a man would face. Agents like Virginia Hall, despite her missing leg, were able to evade capture for so long partly because the Gestapo, while aware of her importance, may not have fully grasped the extent of her operational capabilities, viewing her as a more easily apprehended target. This psychological blind spot on the part of the enemy allowed female spies to operate with greater freedom and to conduct their missions with a lower risk of immediate detection, at least in the initial stages.

What were the main types of tasks performed by female spies?

The tasks performed by female spies were as varied as the individuals themselves and the specific needs of the intelligence organizations they served. While often romanticized as daring saboteurs and assassins, their roles encompassed a much broader spectrum of activities. A significant portion of their work involved intelligence gathering. This could range from clandestine observation and eavesdropping to cultivating informants and interrogating prisoners. Many women acted as couriers, meticulously transporting sensitive documents, messages, or even small pieces of equipment across enemy lines, often relying on their wits and ability to blend in. Sabotage was another critical role, where female agents might be involved in disrupting enemy infrastructure, supply lines, or communications networks. In addition to these more active roles, a substantial number of women served in vital support capacities. This included operating clandestine radio transmitters to send and receive coded messages, maintaining safe houses for operatives and downed airmen, providing medical assistance to Resistance fighters, and even engaging in the complex task of code-breaking and intelligence analysis. Furthermore, some women were instrumental in propaganda efforts, using their skills to disseminate misinformation, influence public opinion, or boost morale among allied populations.

How did female spies maintain their cover and what were the risks involved?

Maintaining cover was the cornerstone of successful espionage, and for female spies, this often involved a combination of skill, improvisation, and calculated risk-taking. Their cover identities were meticulously crafted, often drawing on their real-life experiences or fabricating plausible backstories. For instance, a woman might pose as a journalist, a nurse, a refugee, a shopkeeper, or even a member of the occupying forces’ social circles, depending on the mission’s requirements and her own abilities. They had to internalize their assumed personas, adopting the mannerisms, vocabulary, and lifestyle of their cover. This required immense acting ability and constant vigilance. The risks involved were profound and multifaceted. Discovery meant not just potential arrest, but often torture and execution. They faced the constant threat of betrayal from informants or accidental denunciation. Beyond physical danger, female spies also navigated the psychological toll of living a double life, the constant deception, and the isolation it engendered. They risked not only their own lives but also the lives of those they interacted with and the success of their missions. The threat of exposure was ever-present, and a single mistake could have catastrophic consequences, making their bravery and dedication all the more remarkable.

What is the legacy of female spies, and why is it important to remember their contributions?

The legacy of female spies is one of immense courage, ingenuity, and often, profound sacrifice. Their contributions, though frequently underrepresented in historical narratives, were pivotal to the success of numerous intelligence operations and, by extension, the outcomes of conflicts and political events. Remembering their stories is vital for several reasons. Firstly, it corrects the historical record, acknowledging the significant roles women played in fields often dominated by men. It challenges outdated notions of gender roles and demonstrates that women possess the same capacity for bravery, intellect, and strategic thinking as anyone else. Secondly, their stories serve as powerful inspiration. For young women and girls, learning about figures like Nancy Wake or Virginia Hall can demonstrate that perceived limitations can be overcome and that leadership and impact are not confined by gender. Thirdly, understanding the history of female espionage provides valuable insights into the evolving nature of intelligence work and the diverse skills required for success. It highlights that effective espionage is not just about physical prowess but also about intelligence, adaptability, psychological insight, and the ability to build trust. By remembering these women, we gain a more complete and nuanced understanding of history and a more accurate appreciation of the diverse individuals who shaped it from the shadows.

The Elusive Nature of “The Greatest”

Ultimately, the question “Who is the greatest female spy of all time?” may not have a single, definitive answer. The very essence of their work is secrecy. The women who were most effective were often those who remained unknown, whose successes were never publicly attributed to them.

However, by examining the lives and achievements of women like Josephine Baker, Nancy Wake, Virginia Hall, Chet Adams, and the Duchess de Valençay, we can appreciate the extraordinary spectrum of contributions women have made to the world of espionage. They demonstrated unparalleled courage, remarkable intelligence, and an unwavering commitment to their causes, often in the face of immense personal risk and societal prejudice.

The true “greatest” might well be among the countless unsung heroines whose names are lost to history, those whose bravery ensured the success of missions that changed the course of nations. Their collective impact, though individually obscure, is undeniable. They are the silent architects of history, and their stories, however fragmented, deserve to be remembered and celebrated.

Perhaps the greatest lesson from exploring the lives of these remarkable women is that heroism knows no gender. In the shadows of espionage, women have consistently proven themselves to be as capable, as daring, and as effective as any man, often with fewer resources and greater societal obstacles to overcome. Their legacy is not just one of secret missions and daring feats, but of resilience, intellect, and the enduring power of the human spirit in its fight for freedom and justice.