Which Country Suffered the Worst in WW2? Examining the Devastation and Loss

The question, “Which country suffered the worst in WW2?” is a somber one, echoing through the annals of history and prompting deep reflection on the unimaginable scale of human tragedy. While every nation involved bore its own unique burden, a profound examination, particularly through the lens of sheer human loss and the destruction of civilian life, points towards the Soviet Union as arguably the country that suffered the worst in WW2. It’s a difficult conclusion, one that necessitates understanding not just statistics, but the lived experiences of millions caught in the maelstrom of total war.

I remember my grandfather, a quiet man who rarely spoke of his wartime experiences, once described the sheer, unyielding cold. It wasn’t just the winter of Stalingrad, though that was a defining horror. It was the pervasive, bone-chilling cold of a nation stretched to its absolute breaking point, where survival itself was a daily, desperate battle. He spoke of hunger that gnawed relentlessly, of cities reduced to rubble, and of the constant, omnipresent fear. It wasn’t a singular event for him, but a sustained period of profound suffering that shaped his entire life. His story, and countless others like it, underscore why the Soviet Union’s experience warrants such careful, and often heartbreaking, consideration when we ask which country suffered the worst in WW2.

The Scale of Soviet Losses: A Glimpse into the Abyss

To truly grasp the magnitude of suffering, we must confront the staggering figures. While precise numbers remain a subject of ongoing historical research and debate, the consensus is that the Soviet Union experienced by far the highest death toll in World War II. Estimates vary, but often place the total number of military and civilian deaths between 20 and 27 million. To put this into perspective, this figure alone represents a significant portion of the total global death toll of the war, which is estimated to be between 70 and 85 million people. The Soviet Union’s losses were so immense that they profoundly altered its demographics for generations.

Military Casualties: The Human Cost on the Front Lines

The Eastern Front was a brutal meat grinder, characterized by its sheer ferocity and the colossal armies clashing across vast expanses of territory. The Red Army, facing the relentless onslaught of the Wehrmacht, endured casualties on an unprecedented scale. The initial years of the war, particularly Operation Barbarossa, saw catastrophic losses as the Soviet forces were caught off guard by the speed and efficiency of the German blitzkrieg. Millions of soldiers were killed, wounded, or captured in the early campaigns.

Initial Catastrophe: In the first year of the German invasion (1941-1942), Soviet military casualties were astronomical. The encirclement and destruction of vast numbers of troops in pockets like Kiev and Minsk led to hundreds of thousands of deaths and millions captured, many of whom would perish in horrific POW camps.
Attrition Warfare: Battles like Stalingrad, Kursk, and the offensives across Belarus and Ukraine were characterized by intense, attritional warfare. While the Soviets ultimately prevailed, the cost in human lives was devastating. Soviet tactics often prioritized overwhelming force and enduring losses to achieve objectives, a strategy born out of necessity but resulting in immense sacrifice.
The “Human Wave” Tactic: While often exaggerated, the perception of Soviet forces being thrown into battle with little regard for individual lives was a grim reality in certain situations. This was particularly true when facing heavily fortified German positions or in desperate attempts to break through encirclements. The sheer manpower available to the Soviet Union, while a strategic advantage, came at a terrible individual price.
Guerilla Warfare and Partisan Fighting: Beyond the formal military, Soviet partisans operating behind enemy lines also suffered immensely, often facing brutal reprisals from German occupying forces against civilian populations.

The psychological toll on the soldiers who survived was equally profound. The constant exposure to death, the brutality of combat, and the knowledge of the suffering of their families back home left deep scars. Many returned home physically and emotionally broken, struggling to reintegrate into a society that was itself struggling to rebuild.

Civilian Devastation: A Nation Under Siege

Perhaps even more staggering than the military losses is the sheer scale of civilian suffering within the Soviet Union. The war was not confined to the front lines; it raged across the Soviet homeland, bringing with it occupation, scorched-earth policies, systematic extermination, and widespread famine.

German Occupation and Atrocities: Large swathes of the Soviet Union were occupied by German forces for extended periods. The Nazi regime’s ideological aims included the subjugation and brutalization of Slavic populations, whom they considered “Untermenschen” (sub-humans). This translated into widespread atrocities, including mass shootings, forced labor, and the deliberate starvation of civilian populations in occupied territories. Cities like Minsk, Kiev, and numerous smaller towns were subjected to unspeakable violence.
Siege of Leningrad: The nearly 900-day siege of Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) is one of the most horrific examples of civilian suffering in modern history. Cut off from supplies, the inhabitants endured starvation, extreme cold, and relentless bombardment. An estimated 1.1 million civilians died, primarily from starvation and disease. The stories of people resorting to eating wallpaper paste, shoe leather, and even cannibalism are chilling testaments to the depths of despair reached during this period.
Scorched-Earth Policies: As the Red Army retreated, they often employed scorched-earth tactics, destroying anything of value that the advancing enemy could use. While strategically necessary, this left behind devastated landscapes and deprived civilian populations of vital resources, exacerbating the impact of subsequent occupation or famine.
Forced Labor and Deportations: Millions of Soviet citizens, particularly from the Baltic states and western Ukraine, were forcibly deported to Germany for slave labor. They were treated with extreme cruelty and often worked to death.
Famine and Disease: The disruption of agriculture, the destruction of infrastructure, and the displacement of populations led to widespread famine and the rampant spread of diseases like typhus and dysentery, claiming countless lives.

The experience of ordinary Soviet citizens during the war was one of constant, grinding hardship. They faced the immediate threat of death from bombing raids, artillery fire, or the invading army. If they survived occupation, they endured extreme deprivation, hunger, and the loss of loved ones. The collective trauma inflicted upon the civilian population is a critical factor when considering which country suffered the worst in WW2.

Comparing Suffering: A Difficult and Sensitive Task

While the evidence strongly points to the Soviet Union, it is crucial to acknowledge that other nations also endured immense suffering. Comparing suffering is an inherently difficult and sensitive task, as each nation’s experience was unique and deeply tragic in its own right. However, to gain a more comprehensive understanding, a brief comparison with other heavily impacted nations is warranted.

Poland: A Nation Torn Apart

Poland stands as another nation that bore an almost unbearable burden during WW2. As the initial invasion point for both Germany and the Soviet Union, Poland was brutally occupied from both sides. Its population suffered immensely:

Devastating Population Loss: Poland lost approximately 6 million citizens, a staggering percentage of its pre-war population (around 17%). A significant portion of these were Polish Jews, annihilated in the Holocaust, but ethnic Poles also suffered greatly from German and Soviet policies.
Targeted Extermination: Poland was central to Nazi Germany’s genocidal policies, most notably the Holocaust. Auschwitz-Birkenau and other extermination camps were located on Polish soil, and the systematic murder of six million Polish Jews was carried out there. Ethnic Poles were also subjected to mass executions, forced labor, and brutal repression.
Warsaw Uprising: The Warsaw Uprising of 1944, a desperate bid for independence by the Polish Home Army, was brutally suppressed by the Germans. The city was systematically destroyed, and hundreds of thousands of civilians were killed or expelled.
Loss of Independence: Beyond the immediate casualties, Poland lost its sovereignty for decades, first under Nazi occupation and then under Soviet domination.

While Poland’s absolute death toll was lower than the Soviet Union’s, its proportion of lost population was remarkably high, indicating a similarly profound level of national devastation. The systematic nature of the extermination targeting its Jewish population, alongside the brutalization of its ethnic majority, makes Poland’s suffering particularly acute.

China: The Long War of Resistance

China’s experience in WW2 was unique in its duration and its entanglement with its own civil war. The Second Sino-Japanese War began in 1937, two years before the European conflict, and continued until Japan’s surrender in 1945. The cost was immense:

Massive Death Toll: Estimates for Chinese casualties range widely, but are often cited between 15 and 20 million military and civilian deaths. The sheer number of people affected by prolonged warfare, occupation, and atrocities is difficult to overstate.
Brutality of Japanese Occupation: Japanese forces committed horrific atrocities throughout China, most infamously the Nanking Massacre (or Nanjing Massacre), where hundreds of thousands of civilians were systematically raped, tortured, and murdered. Unit 731, a notorious biological and chemical warfare research unit, also conducted horrific human experimentation on Chinese prisoners.
Widespread Famine and Disease: The prolonged conflict disrupted agriculture and supply lines, leading to widespread famine and the spread of disease, contributing significantly to the death toll.
Internal Conflict: The war against Japan was exacerbated by the ongoing civil war between the Nationalist Kuomintang and the Communist Party, further destabilizing the country and diverting resources.

China’s suffering is characterized by the immense scale of its population, the extreme brutality of the occupying forces, and the protracted nature of the conflict. The impact on its development and the lives of its people was catastrophic.

Germany: The Scars of Defeat and Guilt

As a primary aggressor nation, Germany’s experience of WW2 was one of initial triumph followed by utter devastation. While its role as an aggressor nation is undeniable, the suffering of its own people, particularly in the latter stages of the war, was immense.

Military Casualties: Germany suffered significant military losses, estimated at around 5.5 million servicemen killed. The Eastern Front, in particular, was a graveyard for German soldiers.
Bombing Campaigns: Allied strategic bombing campaigns devastated German cities, causing immense civilian casualties and widespread destruction. Cities like Dresden, Hamburg, and Berlin were reduced to rubble, with hundreds of thousands of civilians killed in firebombings.
Displacement and Refugee Crisis: At the end of the war, millions of Germans were displaced from their homes in Eastern Europe, becoming refugees in a war-torn Germany.
Post-War Hardship: The post-war period in Germany was marked by extreme hardship, hunger, and the difficult process of dealing with the war crimes committed by the Nazi regime.

Germany’s suffering is intertwined with its responsibility for the war and the atrocities committed by its government. While its people endured immense hardship, particularly from bombing and the final defeat, their suffering cannot be equated with the systematic oppression and extermination faced by occupied nations. Nevertheless, the scale of destruction and loss within Germany itself was considerable.

Japan: Island Nation Under Siege

Japan’s experience was defined by its island geography, its militaristic regime, and its eventual defeat by overwhelming Allied force.

Military Casualties: Japan suffered around 2.5 million military deaths.
Air Raids and Atomic Bombs: Like Germany, Japan was subjected to devastating Allied air raids, with cities like Tokyo experiencing horrific firebombings that killed hundreds of thousands. The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki remain the only use of nuclear weapons in warfare, causing unprecedented destruction and loss of life, and ushering in the nuclear age.
Pacific Island Campaigns: The fierce fighting on Pacific islands resulted in horrific casualties on both sides, often in brutal jungle warfare.
Post-War Devastation: Japan was left in ruins, facing starvation and a complete societal collapse before its subsequent economic miracle.

Japan’s suffering was intensified by the unique horror of the atomic bombs and the fanatical resistance it often put up, leading to protracted and bloody campaigns. The post-war devastation and occupation left a deep mark on the nation.

The Uniqueness of Soviet Suffering

While acknowledging the immense suffering of other nations, the Soviet Union’s experience stands out due to a confluence of factors:

Unprecedented Human Losses: The sheer number of deaths, both military and civilian, dwarfs that of any other nation. This represents an unparalleled erosion of human capital.
Ideological Brutality: The Nazi ideology of racial superiority led to a systematic and genocidal campaign against Slavic populations, distinct from the conquest and occupation faced by Western European nations. The scale of extermination, even beyond the Holocaust, was immense.
Duration and Intensity of Combat: The Eastern Front was the largest land theater of war in history, characterized by its brutal, attritional nature and constant, large-scale offensives and counter-offensives that raged for four years.
Scorched Earth and Destruction: The extensive use of scorched-earth tactics and the deliberate destruction of infrastructure by both sides left vast regions of the Soviet Union in a state of utter ruin, prolonging the suffering long after the fighting ceased.
Impact on Civilian Life: The war directly impacted almost every Soviet citizen, either through military service, occupation, displacement, or the constant threat of violence and starvation. The lines between combatant and civilian were often blurred due to the total nature of the conflict.

My grandfather’s generation in the Soviet Union carried this burden. They lived through the war and then spent decades rebuilding their lives and their nation from the ashes. The collective memory of that suffering, though sometimes unspoken, was a powerful force shaping their national identity and their approach to life. It’s a testament to their resilience that they were able to persevere and ultimately contribute to the Allied victory.

Factors Contributing to the Scale of Soviet Suffering

Several key factors contributed to the overwhelming scale of suffering in the Soviet Union:

The Nature of the Nazi-Soviet War

Adolf Hitler’s invasion of the Soviet Union, Operation Barbarossa, was driven by a virulent ideological hatred. The Nazis viewed Slavic peoples as racially inferior and intended to enslave or exterminate them, colonize their lands, and seize their resources. This ideological underpinning led to a level of brutality and systematic destruction that was arguably unparalleled, even in the broader context of the war.

The war on the Eastern Front was not merely a territorial conquest; it was a war of annihilation. German forces were encouraged to treat Soviet prisoners of war and civilians with extreme cruelty. While Western front lines often saw prisoners taken and treated according to conventions (albeit imperfectly), on the Eastern Front, POWs were frequently abandoned to die of starvation and disease, or deliberately murdered.

Soviet Military Preparedness and Initial Setbacks

While the Soviet Union eventually mobilized an enormous fighting force, its initial preparedness for the German onslaught was hampered by several factors. Josef Stalin’s purges of the Red Army’s leadership in the late 1930s had severely weakened its command structure. Furthermore, Soviet intelligence had warned of an impending invasion, but Stalin, suspicious of British and American intelligence and perhaps misjudging Hitler’s intentions, largely dismissed these warnings and ordered his troops not to provoke the Germans.

This lack of readiness meant that when Barbarossa commenced on June 22, 1941, the Red Army was caught largely by surprise. Vast numbers of troops, aircraft, and equipment were destroyed or captured in the initial weeks and months. The strategic depth of Soviet territory, while ultimately an advantage, initially meant that the initial losses were staggering as the Germans advanced hundreds of miles into Soviet territory.

The Brutality of Occupation Policies

When German forces occupied Soviet territories, their policies were often devastating for the civilian population. Beyond the general subjugation of Slavic peoples, specific actions led to mass death and suffering:

Massacres of Jews and Other Minorities: The Einsatzgruppen, mobile killing squads, followed the German army, systematically murdering Jews, Roma, communists, and other perceived enemies. The scale of these mass killings was enormous.
Ghettos and Starvation: Jewish populations were confined to ghettos, subjected to starvation, disease, and brutal living conditions before being deported to extermination camps.
Exploitation and Forced Labor: Non-Jewish populations were subjected to forced labor, requisitioning of food and resources, and severe repression. The Nazi drive for resources meant that occupied territories were systematically plundered, leaving civilians with little to survive on.
Punitive Measures: In response to partisan activity, German forces often enacted brutal collective punishment against entire villages, burning them down and executing inhabitants.

The psychological impact of such widespread and systematic brutality on the occupied populations cannot be overstated. It instilled a pervasive sense of terror and despair.

The Role of Famine and Disease

The war’s disruption of agriculture, coupled with German plundering and scorched-earth tactics, led to widespread famine across the Soviet Union, particularly in occupied areas and during sieges like Leningrad. Food shortages were endemic, and people resorted to desperate measures to survive.

The breakdown of sanitation, the displacement of populations, and widespread malnutrition created fertile ground for diseases like typhus, dysentery, and cholera. These diseases, often invisible but deadly, claimed millions of lives, compounding the suffering caused by direct violence and starvation.

The Strain on the Home Front

The war effort placed an unimaginable strain on the Soviet home front. Women played a crucial role, taking over jobs previously held by men, working in factories, on farms, and in support roles for the military. Despite their vital contributions, they also bore the brunt of civilian suffering, raising children in conditions of extreme scarcity and fear, and dealing with the constant news of loss from the front.

The evacuation of industries and populations from threatened areas also created immense hardship. Millions were uprooted from their homes and sent to work in the remote eastern regions of the Soviet Union, often in primitive conditions, facing harsh climates and further shortages.

The Legacy of Suffering

The immense suffering endured by the Soviet Union left an indelible mark on the nation and its people. The war reshaped its demographic landscape, its political structure, and its collective psyche.

The sheer loss of life meant that a generation of men was decimated, impacting family structures and societal development for decades. The collective trauma of war and occupation contributed to a national stoicism and a deep-seated desire for peace, even as the Cold War cast a long shadow.

For those who lived through it, like my grandfather, the memories remained vivid. They carried the weight of their experiences, not necessarily to dwell on the past, but as a testament to their survival and the enduring strength of the human spirit. Understanding which country suffered the worst in WW2 requires acknowledging this profound and lasting legacy of sacrifice and devastation.

Frequently Asked Questions About WW2 Suffering

How did the Soviet Union’s military strategy contribute to its high casualty rates?

The Soviet Union’s military strategy during World War II was a complex interplay of necessity, ideology, and sheer determination. In the initial phases of the German invasion, the Red Army was caught off guard and suffered catastrophic losses due to a lack of preparedness, purges of experienced leadership, and the overwhelming effectiveness of the German Blitzkrieg. However, as the war progressed, Soviet strategy evolved. They learned to adapt to the brutal realities of the Eastern Front, eventually developing sophisticated offensive capabilities.

A key aspect of Soviet strategy was its willingness to engage in attritional warfare. Faced with a technologically advanced and initially superior German army, the Soviets often relied on overwhelming numbers and a relentless offensive tempo to wear down the enemy. This involved accepting very high casualties to achieve objectives. Battles like Stalingrad and Kursk, while resulting in crucial Soviet victories, were incredibly bloody and resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths on both sides. The “not one step back” order at Stalingrad, for instance, symbolized a grim determination to hold ground at any cost, underscoring the Soviet willingness to sacrifice heavily for strategic gains.

Furthermore, the Soviet doctrine often emphasized mass assaults to break through enemy lines. While effective in overwhelming defenses, this approach could lead to significant losses, particularly against well-entrenched German positions. The use of “human waves,” though sometimes exaggerated, reflected a reality where manpower was a critical resource that could be leveraged, albeit at a terrible human cost. It’s important to note that this wasn’t always a lack of tactical sophistication, but often a calculated risk taken when facing an existential threat and with vast reserves of manpower.

Why was the civilian toll so high in the Soviet Union compared to other Allied nations?

The civilian toll in the Soviet Union was exceptionally high due to a combination of factors directly related to the nature of the Nazi-Soviet war and German occupation policies. Firstly, the Eastern Front was the largest land war in history, and it was fought with a ferocity and ideological brutality rarely seen elsewhere. Nazi Germany’s racial ideology viewed Slavic populations as sub-human and intended to subjugate, enslave, or exterminate them. This translated into systematic policies of terror, mass executions, and deliberate starvation of civilians in occupied territories.

Secondly, the sheer geographical scale of the Soviet Union meant that vast areas were occupied by German forces for extended periods. This subjected millions of civilians to the direct rule of the Nazi regime, with all its accompanying horrors. The Holocaust, while a pan-European tragedy, was carried out on an immense scale within Soviet territory, with the Einsatzgruppen’s mass shootings being a particularly brutal manifestation. The sieges of cities like Leningrad, where populations were deliberately starved into submission, represent an extreme form of civilian warfare.

Thirdly, the scorched-earth tactics employed by both the retreating Soviets and the advancing Germans often destroyed vital infrastructure and resources, leaving civilian populations with nothing. The disruption of agriculture, coupled with the plundering of food supplies by occupying forces, led to widespread famine that claimed millions of lives. The breakdown of public health systems and sanitation also contributed to the spread of deadly diseases like typhus. In essence, the Soviet civilian population was caught between the brutal realities of a war of annihilation waged by Nazi Germany and the devastating effects of total war that permeated every aspect of their lives.

What were the specific atrocities committed by the Axis powers on Soviet soil that distinguish this suffering?

The atrocities committed by the Axis powers, particularly Nazi Germany, on Soviet soil were distinguished by their ideological motivation, systematic nature, and sheer scale. While wartime atrocities are a tragic feature of all conflicts, the Nazi program of racial extermination and Lebensraum (living space) envisioned a radical restructuring of Eastern Europe based on ethnic cleansing and enslavement. Key atrocities included:

The Einsatzgruppen Massacres: These mobile killing units followed the German army into Soviet territory and were responsible for the systematic murder of over a million Jews, as well as Roma, communists, and other targeted groups. Their operations were characterized by mass shootings, often of entire communities, including women and children.
The Holocaust in the Soviet Union: Beyond the Einsatzgruppen, the Nazis established ghettos where Jewish populations were confined under horrific conditions, starved, and then deported to extermination camps like Auschwitz, Treblinka, and Sobibor. The vast Jewish communities of Eastern Europe were annihilated.
The Siege of Leningrad: This nearly 900-day siege was a deliberate act of starvation aimed at breaking the city’s resistance and eliminating its population. Civilians were denied food and supplies, leading to widespread death from hunger, cold, and disease. The suffering was so extreme that instances of cannibalism were reported.
Systematic Starvation and Plunder: German occupation policies prioritized the exploitation of Soviet resources for the German war effort. Food supplies were systematically requisitioned, leading to widespread famine in both occupied territories and even within parts of the Soviet Union not directly under siege.
Forced Labor and Enslavement: Millions of Soviet citizens, including women and children, were deported to Germany as slave laborers (Ostarbeiter). They were subjected to brutal working conditions, meager rations, and constant abuse, with many perishing from exhaustion or mistreatment.
Reprisals and Collective Punishment: In response to partisan activity, German forces often carried out brutal reprisals against entire villages, burning them to the ground and executing their inhabitants, including women and children, as a deterrent.

These actions were not merely byproducts of warfare but were often deliberate policies driven by Nazi ideology, aiming to eliminate entire populations and seize their lands. This level of ideologically driven, systematic mass murder and subjugation distinguishes the suffering inflicted upon the Soviet Union.

How did the war impact the demographics of the Soviet Union for generations?

The demographic impact of World War II on the Soviet Union was profound and long-lasting, fundamentally altering its population structure for decades. The most immediate and devastating impact was the immense loss of life. The estimated 20-27 million Soviet citizens who perished represented a significant portion of its pre-war population. This loss was not evenly distributed; it disproportionately affected men of military age, leading to a severe imbalance in the gender ratio that persisted for generations.

The loss of so many men meant that fewer individuals were available for marriage and procreation, leading to lower birth rates in the post-war period. This demographic deficit was compounded by the widespread displacement of populations during and after the war. Millions of people were evacuated to the interior of the country, while others were forcibly deported. Reintegration into their original homes or resettlement in new areas was often a challenging and slow process.

The war also resulted in a decline in life expectancy and an increase in infant mortality due to the long-term effects of malnutrition, disease, and psychological trauma. For many years after the war, the Soviet Union struggled to recover its population levels. The gender imbalance meant that many women never married, and families were often headed by single mothers. The memory of loss and the scarcity experienced during the war also influenced family planning and societal attitudes towards childbearing. The demographic scar left by World War II was a constant reminder of the immense price the Soviet Union paid for its victory.

In what ways did the suffering of the Soviet Union differ from that of Western European nations?

The suffering of the Soviet Union differed from that of Western European nations primarily in its sheer scale and the ideological underpinnings of the conflict on its territory. While nations like France, Britain, and the Netherlands endured occupation, bombing, and hardship, the Soviet experience was marked by a war of annihilation on its own soil:

Scale of Losses: As detailed previously, the Soviet Union suffered a death toll vastly exceeding that of any Western European nation. This was due to the vastness of the Eastern Front and the intensity of the fighting.
Ideological War of Extermination: The Nazi regime’s genocidal ideology was directly applied to the Soviet population on an unprecedented scale. The systematic extermination of Jews and the planned subjugation and depopulation of Slavic lands were central to Nazi war aims in the East, leading to atrocities far exceeding those seen in Western Europe, where the primary aim was conquest and exploitation rather than outright racial annihilation.
Duration and Nature of Occupation: While Western European countries were occupied, the Soviet Union experienced a deeper and more prolonged period of brutal occupation across vast territories. The German military’s treatment of Soviet civilians and prisoners of war was generally far more savage than in Western Europe, where occupation policies, while harsh, were not always driven by the same level of genocidal intent.
Civilian Impact of Combat: The Eastern Front was characterized by immense land battles that ravaged entire regions. While cities in Western Europe suffered from bombing, the scale of destruction and direct civilian casualties from ground combat and sieges was more pronounced across the vast Soviet landscape.
Post-War Recovery Trajectory: While Western European nations faced rebuilding, the Soviet Union had to contend with a much more profoundly devastated infrastructure, a severely depleted population, and a political system that prioritized rebuilding the military and industrial base, often at the expense of immediate civilian comfort.

In essence, while the suffering in Western Europe was horrific, the Soviet Union faced a war that was existential and genocidal in its aims and execution, leading to a level of devastation and human loss that was tragically unique.

Which Country Suffered the Worst in WW2? Examining the Devastation and Loss