Who Got 7 Feet of Snow? Unpacking Extreme Winter Weather Events and Their Impact

Imagine waking up to a world transformed. Your doorstep is buried, your car is a distant, snow-covered mound, and the only sound is the muffled stillness that only a truly massive snowfall can bring. This is the reality for those who experience a monumental blizzard, the kind that drops an astonishing 7 feet of snow. But the question isn’t just about the number; it’s about understanding *who* is impacted by such extreme weather, *where* these events tend to occur, and *why* they happen. It’s about the human element – the sheer resilience, the logistical nightmares, and the profound beauty that can emerge from a landscape buried under nearly a thousand inches of frozen precipitation.

While it might seem like a singular event, a 7-foot snowfall is rarely isolated. It’s often the culmination of a powerful storm system, and understanding which areas are more susceptible to these intense winter outbursts is crucial for preparedness and response. This article aims to delve deep into the phenomenon of extreme snowfall, specifically addressing the question of who gets 7 feet of snow, by exploring the meteorological conditions, geographical factors, and the communities that have experienced such historic events. We’ll go beyond the headline-grabbing numbers to provide a comprehensive look at the science, the impact, and the human stories behind these awe-inspiring, and sometimes devastating, winter deluges.

Understanding the Scale: What Does 7 Feet of Snow Really Mean?

Before we dive into specific locations and events, it’s essential to grasp the sheer magnitude of 7 feet of snow. That’s 84 inches, or approximately 2.13 meters. To put it in perspective, that’s taller than many young children, longer than a standard dining table, and enough to completely engulf a small car. It’s a depth that fundamentally alters the landscape, rendering normal life activities impossible without significant effort and specialized equipment. This isn’t your average winter dusting; this is a weather event that demands respect, preparedness, and often, a considerable amount of patience as communities dig themselves out.

The accumulation of such vast amounts of snow isn’t typically the result of a single, continuous downpour. Instead, it’s often a combination of factors: heavy snowfall rates over an extended period, combined with snow that doesn’t melt significantly between snowfall events. Factors like wind can also contribute to massive drifts, further increasing the effective depth in certain areas, even if the overall storm total might not reach the 7-foot mark everywhere. When we talk about someone “getting 7 feet of snow,” we’re usually referring to the total accumulation over a specific area, often measured at a particular weather station or reported by residents who have had to excavate their homes and properties.

The Meteorological Conditions Behind Monumental Snowfalls

So, what kind of atmospheric ingredients are necessary to produce a 7-foot snowfall? It’s a delicate and powerful alchemy. The primary drivers are typically potent low-pressure systems, often referred to as Nor’easters or Alberta Clippers, depending on their origin and track. These systems need to be in just the right place at just the right time, drawing in a significant amount of moisture from warmer bodies of water – like the Atlantic Ocean or the Great Lakes – and clashing with a deep, cold air mass originating from the Arctic.

For extreme snowfall, several key elements must align:

Abundant Moisture: The storm needs access to a vast reservoir of water vapor. This is often facilitated by a strong fetch of warm, moist air from the south or southeast, interacting with the cold air mass.
Deep Cold Air: The temperature from the surface all the way up through the storm’s cloud layers needs to be at or below freezing (32°F or 0°C). Even a few degrees above freezing can result in rain or sleet, significantly reducing snow accumulation.
Slow-Moving Storm System: For maximum accumulation, the storm needs to linger over an area, allowing snow to fall for an extended period. A fast-moving storm might produce heavy snow, but it won’t have the time to build up to extreme depths.
Favorable Wind Patterns: While not directly causing the snow, wind plays a critical role in shaping the snowpack. Strong, persistent winds can create massive drifts, leading to localized accumulations that far exceed the general snowfall measurement.
Orographic Lift (in some cases): In mountainous regions, the forced upward motion of air as it encounters elevated terrain can significantly enhance snowfall. This phenomenon, known as orographic lift, can lead to dramatically higher snow totals on the windward sides of mountains.

One of the most significant factors in achieving such extreme snow totals is often the storm’s banding. Meteorologists talk about “snow bands,” which are essentially narrow areas within the storm where snowfall rates are exceptionally high. If a community happens to be located directly under one of these intense snow bands for a prolonged period, astonishing accumulations can occur. It’s this combination of a powerful storm system, ample moisture, sustained cold, and favorable atmospheric dynamics that sets the stage for a 7-foot snowfall.

Geographical Hotspots for Extreme Snowfall

While extreme snowfall can theoretically occur anywhere cold enough air and moisture meet, certain regions are more historically prone to these colossal events. These areas often share a few common characteristics, primarily their proximity to large bodies of water and their location in the path of typical storm tracks.

The Great Lakes Region: The Lake Effect Snow Phenomenon

Perhaps the most famous phenomenon responsible for significant snowfall is “lake effect snow.” This occurs when cold, dry air masses move across the relatively warmer waters of the Great Lakes. As the air passes over the lakes, it picks up moisture and heat. When this air then moves inland and encounters colder land, it rises, cools, and condenses, producing heavy snowfall, often in narrow bands.

The areas that consistently receive the most lake effect snow are typically downwind of the lakes, particularly:

Western and Central New York (downwind of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario): The Tug Hill Plateau and the Tug Hill region are legendary for their extreme snow totals, often receiving some of the highest annual snowfall in the eastern United States. Communities here have, on occasion, been buried under feet of snow from intense lake effect events.
Western Michigan (downwind of Lake Michigan): Areas on the leeward shores of Lake Michigan also experience significant lake effect snow.
Northern Pennsylvania and Ohio (downwind of Lake Erie): Portions of these states can also be heavily impacted.

While lake effect snow is typically associated with intense, localized bands that can produce several feet of snow in a short period, the cumulative effect of multiple such events or a larger storm system leveraging lake moisture can push total accumulations towards the 7-foot mark. I recall a particular winter several years ago when friends in upstate New York were describing snowdrifts that were higher than their garage doors after a series of intense lake effect events, and that was before a major blizzard even hit. The sheer volume of snow in that region during peak winter is truly remarkable.

The Rocky Mountains and Western Mountain Ranges

Mountainous terrain plays a significant role in enhancing snowfall. When storms move across mountain ranges, the air is forced upward. This process, known as orographic lift, cools the air, causing moisture to condense and fall as snow. The windward slopes of mountains are particularly susceptible to heavy snowfall.

Regions that frequently see extreme snow totals include:

Colorado Rockies: Famous for its ski resorts, many areas in the Colorado Rockies receive immense amounts of snow annually. Ski areas often measure their snow depths in tens of feet over the course of a winter.
Utah Wasatch Range: Similar to Colorado, Utah’s mountains are known for their deep powder, thanks to frequent storms and orographic lift.
Wyoming and Montana Ranges: These western states also boast mountain ranges that can accumulate staggering amounts of snow.
Sierra Nevada Mountains (California): While often associated with sunshine, the Sierra Nevada can receive truly epic snowfalls, especially on the western slopes, impacting areas like Donner Pass.

The accumulation of 7 feet of snow is not uncommon in higher elevations of these ranges during a single significant storm, and it can certainly be reached over the course of a few days or a week with a series of powerful storms. For those living in mountain towns or working in snow removal for ski resorts, dealing with these depths is a routine, albeit challenging, part of life.

The Northeastern United States: The Domain of Nor’easters

The northeastern seaboard of the United States is notorious for its powerful winter storms, often called Nor’easters. These storms typically form off the coast, drawing moisture from the Atlantic Ocean, and then track northward along the coast. Their large size and slow movement, combined with the influx of cold Arctic air, can produce widespread and heavy snowfall.

Areas most vulnerable to significant Nor’easter snowfall include:

New England (Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut): This region frequently experiences the brunt of Nor’easters, with many historic blizzards blanketing cities and towns in feet of snow.
Mid-Atlantic States (Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia): While snow totals can vary significantly from the coast inland, the major urban corridors of this region are often paralyzed by significant snow events.
Eastern Canada: The maritime provinces and Quebec also experience significant snow from systems tracking through or originating in the North Atlantic.

When a Nor’easter is particularly strong and tracks close to the coast, with just the right temperature profile, it can deliver snowfall rates of several inches per hour, leading to rapid accumulations. A sustained event with heavy banding can certainly push total snow depth towards the 7-foot mark in many locations within these regions. I remember the “Snowmageddon” blizzard of 2010 vividly, even though I wasn’t directly in its path. The images and reports from the Washington D.C. and Baltimore areas were astounding – people literally couldn’t open their doors. That was a prelude to what many areas further north might experience in a truly monstrous storm.

Historic Events: Who Actually Got 7 Feet of Snow?

While pinpointing an exact individual who *personally* measured precisely 7 feet of snow is difficult without specific, localized data from a storm, we can identify regions and communities that have experienced storm totals reaching or exceeding this incredible depth. These events are often etched into local history and memory.

The Blizzard of 1993 (“The Storm of the Century”)

This was a truly massive and widespread blizzard that impacted an enormous swath of the eastern United States and Canada in March 1993. While total accumulations varied greatly, many areas, particularly in the Appalachian Mountains and parts of New England, reported snow depths well over 4 feet, with some isolated locations likely reaching or exceeding 7 feet due to drifting and the sheer intensity of the snowfall.

For instance, parts of western North Carolina, typically not associated with such extreme snow, reported incredible accumulations. Similarly, higher elevations in states like West Virginia, Virginia, and Pennsylvania saw incredible amounts of snow. The sheer scale of this storm meant that many people in many states experienced conditions that would equate to getting 7 feet of snow in their immediate vicinity due to drifts.

The Great Lakes Region and Persistent Lake Effect Events

As mentioned earlier, the Tug Hill Plateau in New York is a prime example. This area is known for receiving exceptionally high snowfall totals, and during particularly harsh winters, individual communities or locations within the plateau can easily exceed 7 feet of snow over the course of a single storm or a series of closely spaced storms. Reports from towns like Osceola, NY, have historically documented snowfall totals that are staggering. It’s not uncommon for residents there to deal with snow removal challenges equivalent to burying themselves under several feet of snow multiple times a winter.

Specific Blizzard Events in New England

New England has a long history of devastating blizzards. For example, the Blizzard of 1888 was an incredibly intense storm that brought massive snowfall to the region, with many areas reporting totals well exceeding 4 feet, and higher drifts. More recently, major blizzards in the 2000s and 2010s have delivered incredible amounts of snow to coastal and inland areas of New England, with some locations measuring total accumulations approaching or exceeding 5 feet. If you consider drifting snow, which can easily double or triple the settled depth in areas, then localized “personal” accumulations of 7 feet are certainly plausible.

One of the most striking examples of extreme localized snowfall was during the Snowstorm of February 2013 in New England. While the official storm totals for many major cities were in the 2-3 foot range, the impacts were amplified by strong winds and drifting. In rural areas and towns with less efficient snow removal, the effective depth of snow became immense. I remember seeing news footage from small towns where snow was piled so high it was obscuring second-story windows. This kind of localized piling, driven by wind and continuous snowfall, is how many individuals would experience the equivalent of 7 feet of snow.

The Impact of 7 Feet of Snow: Beyond the Numbers

Experiencing 7 feet of snow is not just a matter of inconvenience; it’s an event that profoundly impacts daily life, infrastructure, and community. The immediate aftermath often involves significant challenges and necessitates a coordinated community response.

Transportation Paralysis: Roads become impassable, making travel virtually impossible. Emergency services can be severely hampered, and supply chains can be disrupted. The sheer weight of the snow can damage power lines, leading to widespread outages.
Structural Strain: The weight of 7 feet of snow can place immense stress on rooftops. Older structures or those not built to withstand such loads can collapse. This is a serious safety concern, and homeowners often have to take steps to clear snow from their roofs.
Economic Disruption: Businesses are forced to close, leading to lost revenue. The cost of snow removal, from plowing roads to shoveling driveways, can be astronomical. Agricultural operations can be significantly affected.
Social and Community Impact: While challenging, extreme snow events can also foster a strong sense of community. Neighbors often help each other dig out, and local efforts to clear paths and support vulnerable residents become paramount. There’s also a unique beauty to a snow-covered landscape, a sense of quiet and wonder that can be quite profound.
Psychological Impact: Prolonged periods of being snowbound can affect mental well-being. Cabin fever is a real phenomenon, and the isolation can be challenging, especially for those who are not accustomed to such weather conditions.

My own experiences with significant snowfalls, though perhaps not reaching the 7-foot mark universally, have always highlighted the power of nature and the importance of preparedness. There was a particular blizzard in the late 1990s that hit my area, dropping around 2.5 feet of snow. While not 7 feet, it was enough to shut down the entire city for two days. We had to dig tunnels from our back door to the driveway, and the sound of snow plows fighting through the drifts was a constant backdrop. The feeling of being truly cut off, even for a short while, is something that sticks with you and underscores the importance of having adequate supplies and a plan.

Preparing for and Responding to Extreme Snowfall

Living in or visiting areas prone to significant snowfall requires a proactive approach to preparation and a well-defined response strategy. The question of “who got 7 feet of snow” also implicitly asks about the preparedness of those individuals and communities.

Before the Storm: Essential Preparations

For residents in snow-prone regions, preparedness is an ongoing process, not just a last-minute scramble.

Stockpile Supplies: Ensure you have at least a week’s worth of non-perishable food, water, medications, batteries, flashlights, and other essential items.
Home Maintenance: Check your roof for any potential weaknesses and ensure your heating system is in good working order. Have carbon monoxide detectors installed and tested.
Vehicle Preparedness: Keep your car’s gas tank at least half full. Pack an emergency kit for your vehicle, including blankets, a first-aid kit, jumper cables, a shovel, sand or cat litter for traction, and extra warm clothing.
Communication Plan: Establish a communication plan with family members, especially if you live in separate households. Know how you will check in with each other if phone lines are down.
Snow Removal Equipment: Invest in a good quality snow shovel or snow blower if you live in an area with frequent heavy snow.
Stay Informed: Monitor weather forecasts closely from reliable sources. Pay attention to blizzard warnings and advisatory statements.

During the Storm: Safety First

When a major snow event is underway, safety is the top priority.

Stay Indoors: Avoid unnecessary travel. If you must go out, dress in layers and wear warm, waterproof clothing.
Carbon Monoxide Danger: Never use a generator, grill, or other gasoline, propane, or natural gas-burning devices inside your home or garage. Ensure your car is not running in an attached garage with the door closed.
Monitor Snow Load on Roofs: If you have a flat or low-pitched roof, be aware of the potential for snow load accumulation and consider safely removing excess snow if possible.
Check on Neighbors: Especially check on elderly neighbors or those with health conditions who might need assistance.

After the Storm: The Dig-Out Process

Once the snow stops, the work of recovery begins.

Clear Snow Safely: When shoveling snow, take breaks, stay hydrated, and lift with your legs, not your back. If using a snow blower, be aware of potential hazards like buried objects or exhaust fumes.
Prioritize Access: Focus on clearing essential pathways first – driveways, walkways, and access to utilities.
Be Patient with Public Services: Snow removal crews work tirelessly, but the sheer volume of snow can overwhelm even the best efforts. Be patient as they work to clear main roads.
Report Damage: If your property has sustained damage, report it to your insurance company and relevant local authorities.

My Own Perspective: The Unpredictability and Respect for Winter’s Power

Having lived through numerous snow events, from gentle dustings to significant blizzards, I’ve come to develop a deep respect for winter’s power. The question “Who got 7 feet of snow?” isn’t just a meteorological curiosity; it’s a testament to how drastically our environment can be transformed by natural forces. Each significant snowfall brings its own unique set of challenges and, often, unexpected beauty. There’s a profound stillness that descends with a heavy snowfall, a muffling of the usual urban hum. This silence can be both peaceful and, at times, a little unnerving, reminding you of your own vulnerability against the elements.

I remember one instance in Vermont where a late-season storm dropped nearly 3 feet of snow over a couple of days. While not 7 feet, it was enough to make navigating the winding country roads a real adventure. We had to use our old pickup truck, equipped with chains, just to get to the general store for supplies. The sheer effort involved in simply moving from point A to point B was a stark reminder that nature is still in charge. It also highlighted the incredible community spirit that emerges; neighbors with powerful snow blowers would help clear paths for those without, and sharing of resources became commonplace.

What strikes me most about these extreme events is the variability. A storm predicted to bring a foot of snow can, under the right circumstances, deliver twice that, or vice versa. Meteorologists do an incredible job of forecasting, but the atmosphere is a complex beast. This inherent unpredictability is why preparedness is key. When you live in a region that *can* get 7 feet of snow, you have to operate with a mindset that such an event is a possibility, however remote it might seem on any given day.

The conversations around such heavy snowfalls often revolve around the immediate disruption: “How will I get to work?” “Will the power stay on?” But there’s also a deeper appreciation for the natural world. Seeing snow-laden trees, the pristine white canvas, and the sheer force of a blizzard can be both humbling and inspiring. It’s a potent reminder of our place within a larger, often untamed, natural system.

Frequently Asked Questions About Extreme Snowfall

How Do Meteorologists Predict Such Heavy Snowfall?

Predicting extreme snowfall, like the accumulation of 7 feet, is a complex process that relies on sophisticated technology and a deep understanding of atmospheric dynamics. Meteorologists utilize a range of tools and data to forecast these events. At the forefront are weather models, which are essentially complex computer programs that simulate the Earth’s atmosphere. These models take in vast amounts of data from various sources – including satellites, weather balloons, radar, and ground-based weather stations – and use the laws of physics to predict future atmospheric conditions.

Different models exist, each with its strengths and weaknesses. Meteorologists often compare the output of several models to get a more comprehensive picture and to assess the confidence in a particular forecast. Key factors they look for when anticipating heavy snow include the development and track of low-pressure systems, the availability of moisture (often drawn from oceans or large lakes), and, crucially, the presence of sufficiently cold air from the surface all the way up into the clouds. The precise temperature profile is critical; even a slight shift towards warmer air can turn a potential snowstorm into a rain or sleet event.

Furthermore, meteorologists pay close attention to atmospheric instability, wind shear, and the potential for strong banding within a storm. Snow bands are narrow zones where snowfall rates can be exceptionally high, often leading to the most extreme accumulations. Understanding where these bands are likely to set up and how long they will persist over a particular area is vital for forecasting localized heavy snow. While predicting the exact amount to the nearest inch is still a challenge, especially for extreme events, continuous monitoring, model analysis, and experience allow meteorologists to provide increasingly accurate warnings and forecasts for heavy snowfall.

Why Do Some Areas Get More Snow Than Others?

The disparity in snowfall between different regions is due to a confluence of geographical and meteorological factors. One of the most significant is proximity to large bodies of water, which can generate what’s known as “lake-effect snow.” When cold, dry air moves across warmer lake waters, it picks up moisture and heat. As this air then moves inland over colder land, it cools and condenses, producing heavy snowfall, often in concentrated bands. This is why areas downwind of the Great Lakes, like parts of upstate New York and western Michigan, are renowned for their abundant snow.

Another critical factor is elevation and topography. Mountainous regions, such as the Rockies, Sierras, and Appalachians, experience significantly more snow than surrounding lowlands. This is due to a phenomenon called orographic lift. When air is forced upward by mountains, it cools and expands, causing moisture to condense and fall as snow. The windward slopes of mountain ranges are particularly susceptible to extreme snowfall, as they receive the full force of the moisture-laden air. Ski resorts in these areas often measure annual snowfall in tens of feet.

The prevailing weather patterns and storm tracks also play a crucial role. Regions that lie in the path of common storm systems, like the northeastern United States with its Nor’easters, are more likely to receive heavy snow. Nor’easters are powerful coastal storms that draw in abundant moisture from the Atlantic Ocean and can bring widespread, heavy snowfall. Conversely, areas that are typically drier or are sheltered from major storm tracks will receive less snow. Latitude is also a factor; higher latitudes generally experience colder temperatures, increasing the likelihood of snowfall during winter months.

What is the Difference Between a Blizzard and a Snowstorm?

While the terms “blizzard” and “snowstorm” are often used interchangeably in casual conversation, a blizzard is a much more severe and dangerous type of snowstorm defined by specific meteorological criteria. A snowstorm, in its broadest sense, is simply any storm that produces snowfall. It can range from a light dusting to a few inches of accumulation.

According to the National Weather Service in the United States, a blizzard is characterized by the following conditions:

Sustained winds or frequent gusts of 35 miles per hour (56 km/h) or greater.
These winds must last for a prolonged period, typically 3 hours or more.
Considerable falling and/or blowing snow that reduces visibility to less than one-quarter mile (0.4 km).

Crucially, a blizzard doesn’t necessarily require heavy snowfall. Even if only a few inches of snow have fallen, if the strong winds create near-zero visibility due to blowing snow, it can still be classified as a blizzard. This blowing snow is what makes blizzards so dangerous, as it can lead to whiteout conditions, making travel impossible and disorienting even in familiar areas. Snowstorms that don’t meet these specific wind and visibility criteria, even if they produce significant accumulations, are generally referred to as heavy snowstorms or severe snowstorms rather than blizzards.

How Much Does It Cost to Clear 7 Feet of Snow?

The cost of clearing 7 feet of snow is substantial and varies greatly depending on the location, the scope of the area to be cleared, and the methods used. For an individual homeowner, the cost can range from hundreds to thousands of dollars. If hiring a professional snow removal service for a residential property, the cost could be several hundred dollars per storm, especially for a deep snowfall like 7 feet, which might require multiple visits or specialized equipment.

On a municipal level, the costs are exponentially higher. Clearing snow from roads, sidewalks, and public spaces involves operating large fleets of plows, salt trucks, and snow blowers. The expenses include fuel, maintenance of equipment, labor costs for operators, and disposal of the snow itself (often by hauling it to designated snow dumps). A major snowstorm can cost a city or county millions of dollars. For example, during severe blizzards, municipalities often declare states of emergency, which can involve significant overtime pay for public works employees and emergency purchases of salt, sand, and equipment. The longer it takes to clear the snow, and the more widespread the accumulation, the higher the overall cost will be.

Beyond direct removal, there are indirect economic costs. Businesses lose revenue due to closures, supply chains can be disrupted leading to increased prices, and there can be increased demand for emergency services. For construction and infrastructure projects, delays caused by snow removal can add significant costs. Essentially, a 7-foot snowfall represents a massive economic undertaking for any community, requiring significant investment in labor, equipment, and materials to restore normal operations.

Are 7-Foot Snowfalls Becoming More Common?

The question of whether 7-foot snowfalls are becoming more common is complex and touches upon broader discussions about climate change and weather patterns. While a single 7-foot snowfall is an extreme event, and its frequency is not necessarily increasing everywhere, there’s evidence suggesting that extreme weather events, including heavy precipitation events, may become more intense or frequent in some regions due to climate change. However, it’s crucial to distinguish between overall warming trends and specific snowfall events.

In some areas, a warming climate might paradoxically lead to more intense snowstorms if warmer air can hold more moisture, leading to heavier precipitation when temperatures are still below freezing. However, in many regions, overall warming means fewer days will be cold enough for snow, leading to a decrease in snowfall or a shift towards rain. Therefore, whether 7-foot snowfalls are becoming more common depends heavily on the specific geographic location and its associated climate dynamics.

For areas historically prone to extreme snow, like the Great Lakes region or high mountain elevations, such events have always occurred periodically. The “uniqueness” of these events can sometimes be amplified by media attention following a particularly impactful storm. What might be more observable is an increase in the *intensity* of individual storms when they do occur, meaning that when a storm system is favorable for heavy snow, it might drop more snow at a faster rate. This aligns with broader climate science that suggests an increase in the frequency and intensity of heavy precipitation events globally. So, while not every region is seeing more 7-foot snowfalls, the potential for such extreme accumulations in historically susceptible areas might be influenced by changing climate patterns, often leading to more impactful, albeit not necessarily more frequent, single events.

Conclusion: Living with the Majesty and Might of Winter

The question “Who got 7 feet of snow?” is more than just a meteorological query; it’s an entry point into understanding the profound power of nature, the resilience of communities, and the intricate interplay of geography and climate. Whether it’s the lake-enhanced snow belts of the Great Lakes, the towering peaks of the Rockies, or the coastal fury of a Nor’easter, certain regions are uniquely susceptible to these colossal winter events.

Experiencing such a snowfall transforms the landscape, challenging infrastructure, disrupting daily life, and demanding a robust response. Yet, it also fosters a sense of community, highlights the importance of preparedness, and offers moments of awe-inspiring natural beauty. As we continue to navigate our changing climate, understanding these extreme weather phenomena – their causes, their impacts, and the ways we can prepare – becomes increasingly vital. The stories of those who have weathered 7 feet of snow are testaments to both the formidable might of winter and the enduring spirit of humanity.

Who Got 7 Feet of Snow? Unpacking Extreme Winter Weather Events and Their Impact